SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 1

Running head: SDL IN A NINTH GRADE SCIENCE CLASSROOM

Implementation of a technology-rich self-directed learning environment in a ninth grade Integrated Science classroom

J. Benjamin Wildeboer

Dr. Wendy Burke

Eastern Michigan University

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 2

Table of Contents

Title Page

1

Table of Contents

2

Introduction/Rationale

3

Statement of Problem

4

Project Goals

4

Description of Setting

5

Student Objectives

6

Role of the Teacher

7

Role of the Student

8

Literature Review

10

Proposed Project Design

22

Scaffolding and Support

23

Assessment

25

Safety Considerations

27

Timeline

28

Conclusion

30

References

36

Appendix A

43

Appendix B

44

Appendix C

45

Appendix D

48

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 3

Rationale/Introduction

The purpose of the educational system in the United States has been described in many different ways depending on the viewpoint of the individual doing the describing.

Creating individuals able to become positive members of society, providing skills for the future workforce, or preparing individuals for an uncertain future have all been cited by various people and organizations as the purpose of schooling- each relying on their own value set and particular social and political biases. While there is no doubt that these various beliefs about the purpose of the American educational system have been true, and may continue to be true in various times and places, it is this author's belief that one of the more important goals of the educational system is to create life-long learners who will be able to actively and knowledgeably engage in whatever ideas and issues may cross their paths. As specific information and skill-sets are quickly changing due to the rapid increases in knowledge and improvements in technology the importance of teaching students specific content information decreases while the importance of teaching students how to locate, evaluate, and interact with knowledge increases. As what it means to be productive members of society or effective members of the workforce changes, the ability for individuals to understand how to learn new knowledge when they need it is more valuable than simply falling back on information learned through formal schooling.

If schools are to become a place where students learn how to interact with, challenge, and develop new knowledge, then the traditional classroom structure- that of the teacher as the primary source of knowledge and assessment- needs to change as well. Students should be given a chance to work out the solutions to problems that do not have predefined answers. In doing so, students lose their status as passive recipients of This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 4

information and instead become active creators of knowledge. A method of implementing this might be built on the problem-based learning (PBL) model that has been used for many years in many content areas with various age levels. The incarnation of PBL

envisioned here provides students with real-world problems to solve that do not already have easy or "neat" answers, gives students the freedom to explore down side canyons as part of the problem solving process, allows time for students to share their ideas and work with others, and provides support and time for students to document and reflect on their learning and problem solving process.

Statement of Problem

Instruction at the high school level is predominantly teacher-directed with teachers acting as the primary source of knowledge for students. With the advent of ubiquitous internet access and free web-based tools it is becoming increasingly easier for students to interact with content information and experts in the field which promotes life-long learning in students. However, many teachers are not familiar with web-based tools or how they might be utilized to improve upon and transform traditional classroom teaching and support a transition to a more student-centered classroom environment.

Project Goals

1. Increase students’ problem-solving, critical thinking skills; help students to think scientifically about problems and issues.

2. Create a self-directed learning instructional unit for 9th grade Integrated Science with appropriate scaffolding and assessment aligned to the self-directed format.

3. Utilize free web-based tools as aids in enhancing, documenting, and assessing student learning.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 5

4. Support and enhance communication and collaboration between students through the use of free web-based tools.

Description of Setting

Population

The school is located in a southeastern coastal Connecticut town of approximately 40,000

individuals. Socio-economically, the town's population is quite diverse. It has a rather large working class population due to a large manufacturing facilities located within the community, as well as a sizable population of upper-middle class to upper class individuals. This latter population set is best illustrated by individuals who come from the communities located on the ocean, whose property values are much higher than average due to their location. Third, due to large military facilities located within and also neighboring the school district, up to 20% of the student population consists of individuals from military families. This population has a higher degree of transience than many non-military populations due to the nature of military service.

School Setting

The implementation of this curricular unit will occur during students’ ninth grade year.

Ninth graders attend the school district’s only high school. The school is large by most standards- the total high school enrollment generally falls between 1200 and 1400

students depending on the year. Classes meet every day and each are ninety minutes long and meet approximately ninety times during a semester. Students take four classes each semester. Classes are one semester long; at the conclusion of a semester students take a new set of classes. Ninth graders are all required to take Integrated Science as their freshman science class. Integrated Science was developed in order to give students an This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 6

overview of subjects that are tested by the Connecticut Academic Performance Test (CAPT) but are not traditionally taken by students until after the administration of the CAPT. State standards mandate the coverage of areas of chemistry, astronomy, physics, and environmental science (see Core Science Curriculum Framework, 2005). Integrated science is offered with three levels or tracks: 1. Foundations of Integrated Science (FIS) is designed primarily for special education and special needs students. FIS classes are capped at a maximum of fifteen students with the goal of greater individualization of teaching and learning.

2. Honors Integrated Science (HIS) is designed for upper-level students to provide them with a more challenging learning environment. HIS classes are capped at a maximum of twenty-four students.

3. College-Prep Integrated Science classes are taken by the majority of ninth grade students.

FIS and HIS classes are designed by the appropriate adaptation of College-Prep Integrated Science materials. The curricular unit described here will initially be implemented in HIS with the goal of expanding the unit to College-Prep and FIS in the future.

Student Objectives

1. Demonstrate the ability to learn and research independently.

2. Perform self and peer-assessments that effectively identify student strengths and suggest places for improvement.

3. Share their learning to a global audience by publishing materials online.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 7

4. Utilize technology effectively to find and share resources, collaborate with students and experts within and without the school, and share their knowledge with others.

5. Identify research questions and self-diagnose areas of knowledge-deficiencies and strengths needed to answer the research questions.

Role of the Teacher

A teacher in a SDL classroom environment must demonstrate skills and support students in ways different than in traditional classroom. The teacher and textbook is the primary source of information in a traditional classroom (Gabric, et al., 2006). However, in a SDL classroom, the “network sherpa” metaphor as described by Couros (2009b) is a more effective and appropriate teaching role. “This metaphor projects the role of teacher as one who ‘knows the terrain,’ helps to guide students around obstacles, but who is also led by student interests, objectives, and knowledge” (Couros, 2009b, para. 6). Since students are following their own interests and passions, the teacher is providing very little, if any, direct instruction. Instead, the teacher must help students learn to think about problems scientifically, teach them how to connect to appropriate resources and experts, and identify mistakes or weaknesses in student work while helping students learn to better self-identify their own weaknesses.

In this role, the teacher must be in constant communication with the students. This communication can occur in person through conversations with students on successes and struggles in their progress towards their stated goals or asynchronously through technologically mediated formats such as comments on student blog posts or videos, email, etc.. The purpose of the teacher/student conversations is not merely to give students information or answer their questions. The conversations should be focused on This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 8

helping students learn to work independently and connect to resources and experts in their field of interest. Students will each need different levels of support as they work towards their goals. The conversation with the teacher helps the teacher provide more targeted support for the needs of the individual students. The ultimate goal is for students to gain the skills required to effectively work through scientific problems and make connections to resources without any support structures.

As a “network sherpa,” it is important for the teacher to model effective and appropriate methods of connecting and sharing resources. Modeling has been shown to improve competence using the techniques being demonstrated over directly instructing students about the desired skills due to the authentic nature of the practice (Harrington & Kervin, 2007). To do this, the teacher might tag and share links using social bookmarking sites such as delicious.com or diigo.com, write their own reflective blog posts, regularly comment on student work, and use tools such as Skype and Twitter to locate and connect to experts in the field.

Role of the Student

The flexibility of the SDL environment provides students with the ability to follow their own interests and passions within a given subject area. This feature increases student engagement and ownership of learning (Zimmerman & Bandura, 1994) and also places more of the responsibility for learning on the student than in traditional classroom environments. The diversity of topics that students in a single classroom might be researching prevents the teacher from being able to deliver instruction to the entire class simultaneously. Students then will need to be able to identify their own learning needs and locate resources to meet those learning needs. Throughout the SDL unit, students will This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 9

assume a variety of roles.

Researcher and scientist. Within a broad framework, students will have the ability to select topics for investigation in areas of interest. As part of this, students will try to answer questions through research, investigation, and experimentation. As students answer the initial question, they will identify other questions that arise as a result of their investigation into the initial question. In this way, students will be involved in a cyclic process of researching, investigation, and questioning; reminiscent of processes utilized by research scientists.

Communicator and collaborator. Throughout the research process students will be expected to communicate with the teacher and their classmates regarding their progress and obstacles they are encountering. Through this communication classmates will be informed about each others’ learning and research. As a result, students who are interested in similar or related topics can collaborate with one another. Students will also be expected to communicate to a larger online community through posting thoughts on their learning process, successes, and difficulties on a regular basis. This provides opportunities for students to connect with scientists or interested community members who might be able to collaborate with them to achieve their learning goals.

Creator. Students will be expected to design and create representations of their learning. These could be in any format the student chooses, from digital formats such as video, pictures, wiki pages, and blogs, to more traditional paper-based formats. Other than a final summative project, the primary goal of these artifacts is to demonstrate the knowledge and skills they are gaining as the go through the SDL process.

Publisher. Students will publish some of their writings, reflections, and digital This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 10

learning artifacts online. This provides students with an authentic global audience.

Publishing their work- in addition to creating opportunities to collaborate with experts beyond the classroom- has been shown to improve student engagement and the quality of student work (Wiley, 2002), and allows students to easily retrieve and share past work as a way to demonstrate how much progress they have made towards their learning goals (Herrington & Kervin, 2007).

Critics and reflectors. Throughout the SDL unit, students will be asked to evaluate their work and the work of their peers. Students play a large role in the assessment process. Student assessment goes beyond simply assessing the final learning task.

Assessment in the SDL environment includes assessing the ability for students to monitor their progress, identify learning needs, select appropriate learning goals, perform peer-assessments, and do self-assessment. Students will initially receive high levels of support and assessment from the teacher which gradually fades until nearly all assessment is self-and peer-assessment.

Literature Review

In a constructivist classroom, student learning does not flow directly from the actions of the teacher, but rather learning occurs through each student's personal interpretations of their interactions with the content, teacher actions, and classroom events (Wittrock, 1986). Vygotsky's (1978) work on the importance of social interaction upon the construction of knowledge in his social constructivist theory has been a major influence in modern constructivist theory (Herrington & Kervin, 2007; Moreno, Gonzalez, Castilla, Gonzalez, & Sigut, 2007). Traditional curriculum tends to emphasize the learning of answers, the memorization of information, and stresses the importance of individual This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 11

exhibitions of knowledge (notably through tests and quizzes). However, the literature has shown that these techniques tend to support short-term learning, promote the commoditization of grades, and rote memorization (Hanley, 1994; Herrington & Kervin, 2007; Levin & Wadmany, 2006; Moreno, et al., 2007). Constructivist theory puts students at the center of their own learning. Students work collaboratively with one another to negotiate meanings and produce artifacts of their knowledge (Herrington & Kervin, 2007; Moreno, et al., 2007; Wittrock, 1986). In constructivist classrooms, the teacher becomes a guide and facilitator who closely monitors student progress, jumps in to clarify meaning and provide additional support, and challenge students to extend their knowledge when necessary (Gabric, Hovance, Comstock, & Harnisch, 2006; Hanley, 1994; Wittrock, 1986). Research supports that the use of constructivist-based curriculum has a multitude of benefits, which support 21st century learning goals. Students who work in constructivist classrooms spend significantly more time working in groups (Owen, Farsaii, Knezek, & Christensen, 2006), are more engaged in learning activities, and more motivated to participate and complete the task at hand (Baird & Fisher, 2006; Hanley, 1994; Moreno, et al., 2007). In addition, students in constructivist classrooms have more developed critical thinking skills and took more responsibility for their own learning (Moreno, et al., 2007; Stansbury & Kynes, 2007). Two important aspects of constructivism being utilized in the classroom that directly relate to this project proposal are the use of authentic activities and collaboration as a regular part of the learning environment for students. These are both heavily emphasized by the standards created by the ISTE and The Partnership for 21st Century Skills (Framework for 21st Century Learning, 2007; NETS for Students, 2007).

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 12

Authenticity in Constructivist Settings Authentic assignments and assessments are cited as an important part of a constructivist curriculum (Herrington & Kervin, 2007; Moreno, et al., 2007; Vygotsky, 1978). These activities are often tied directly to real world problems, require students to demonstrate their knowledge through the creation of learning objects, or require student involvement in communities located outside of the school environment (Baird & Fisher, 2006; Hanley, 1994; Herrington & Kervin, 2007; Moreno, et al., 2007; Stansbury & Kynes, 2007). Benefits of authentic learning as cited in the literature include increased student engagement, increased attention to the creation of quality work, greater critical thinking and problem solving skills (Gabric, et al., 2006; Herrington & Kervin, 2007; Moreno, et al., 2007; Putnam, 2001). These activities are designed so that students see that their work is not solely for the eyes of the teacher. Instead, activities are connected to the real world so that students clearly see the relevance of their learning as it applies outside the context of the school. Often authenticity is created through the publication of student work to an audience that extends beyond the classroom walls (Gabric, et al., 2006; Putnam, 2001). Publication for a wide audience can be done easily utilizing online tools such as blogs, wikis, or web pages. This provides an opportunity for students to receive feedback from individuals all around the world and potentially even from experts in the field (Gabric, et al., 2006; Moreno, et al., 2007)- providing students an opportunity to make and maintain mentoring relationships with professionals in fields of interest to the students. Authenticity in curriculum design empowers students in their knowledge creation process and facilitates the creation of life long learners (Stansbury & Kynes, 2007).

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 13

Collaboration in Constructivist Settings A second important aspect of a constructivist learning environment is the use of collaboration amongst students. In the process of knowledge creation working with peers to negotiate meaning helps foster increased understanding and a deeper understanding of the content (Kimber, Pillay, & Richards, 2007; Moreno, et al., 2007; Resta & Laferriere, 2007; Vygotsky, 1978). Students work in groups of two or more in order to accomplish a task or build skills. Working as a unit, students utilize each other's strengths to successfully achieve the goal of the activity or assignment. All members of the group support one another, so that in the end each member of the group should have similar skills and knowledge as the others, despite differences in understandings and cognitive abilities (Hanley, 1994; Kimber, et al., 2007). The integration of technology tools into a constructivist classroom extends the possibilities of collaboration from simply between students in the classroom to the possibility of collaborating with students from other schools, states, or countries all around the world. Also, it opens up the possibility of being able to collaborate with professionals in the field to, for example, work on research that contributes to the scientific community (Gabric, et al., 2006; Godwin-Jones, 2003; Moreno, et al., 2007; Putnam, 2001). Students working in collaborative groups, both with classmates or individuals from outside the classroom have been shown to increase the quality of work and increase personal engagement and interest in their own learning (Kimber, et al., 2007; Stansbury & Kynes, 2007). Collaboration helps students to take control of their own knowledge making process, thus providing them with a valuable skill on the road to becoming life-long learners (Kimber, et al., 2007; Moreno, et al., 2007).

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 14

create standards for 21st century skills (Framework for 21st Century Learning, 2007; National Research Council, 1996; National Educational Technology Standards for Students, 2007).

Self-directed Learning

Self-directed learning (SDL) is a Constructivist approach to teaching and learning that provides an environment where students have a large degree of control over their own learning. Knowles (1975) describes SDL as “a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes” (p. 18).

SDL shares similar goals, methods, and assessments as a problem-based learning (PBL) environment in that they both are student-centered, allow for a large degree of student choice, and encourage many creative solutions to a problem (Fallik, Eylon, & Rosenfeld, 2008; Loyens, Magda, & Rikers, 2008; Yip & Ghafarian, 2000) over mandating one

“correct” solution. While there is a large degree of variability between the implementation of individual SDL or PBL programs (see differences between descriptions in Dignath & Buttner, 2008; Dynan, Cate, & Rhee, 2008; Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn, 2007; Jones, 2002; Pedersen, Arslanyilmaz, & Williams, 2007; Segers, Dochy, & De Corte, 1999; van Merrienboer & Sluijsmans, 2009; Ward & Lee, 2002; Yip

& Ghafarian, 2000; for example) generally the major differentiation between the two methodologies is the degree of choice students have over the content knowledge being covered. The PBL format typically gives students an ill-defined problem that requires a specific body of content knowledge to solve (Nuy, 1991), whereas the SDL format allows This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 15

students to formulate, investigate, and reformulate problems of their own design (van Merrienboer & Sluijsmans, 2009). Problems in PBL are introduced before the curriculum content is covered. As a result, Loyens, et al. (2008) note that most student learning in PBL is, in fact, self-directed. Since most learning in PBL is SDL, effects found from studies of PBL implementations can be cautiously generalized to implementations of SDL.

Hmelo-Silver, et al. (2007) and Loyens, et al. (2008) clearly define SDL as being distinctly different than individual unguided learning- which has shown little promise as an effective instructional strategy (Hmelo-Silver, et al., 2007). However, when SDL or a student-centered PBL environment is implemented with appropriate support for the students there is evidence of significant positive effects in student comprehension and knowledge retention (Dochy, Segers, Vanden Bossche, and Gijbels, 2003; Mergendoller, Maxwell, & Bellisimo, 2006), engagement (Zimmerman & Bandura, 1994), performance on standardized tests (Cognition and Technology Group at Vanderbilt [CTGV], 1992; Geier, et al., 2008), development of higher-level problem-solving and critical thinking skills (Hmelo-Silver, et al., 2007; van Merrienboer & Sluijsmans, 2009), as well as equipping students with the skills necessary to become lifelong learners (Dignath & Buttner, 2008; Dynan, et al., 2008; Field, 2006, Loyens, et al., 2008, Miflin, Campbell, & Price, 2000; Pedersen, et al., 2007).

Technology in SDL Environments

Implementing self-directed learning in high school level courses creates unique challenges especially the ability to provide appropriate and necessary resources and promote communication and collaboration. However, as computers become more This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 16

ubiquitous in schools due to their decreasing prices and increasing importance in our society (Lanahan, 2002; Lopes & de Macedo, 2009), there are many solutions to these problems through the effective use of technology. Lanahan (2002) points out that although students’ use of technology is ubiquitous, the use is mostly for lower-level tasks. To be used effectively students would need instruction on how to use technology for higher-order tasks. In addition, Wiley (2002) cautions that although the ubiquitous use of technology in instruction appears to show promising effects, there is not yet a reliable body of empirical research on the topic.

Connecting to resources. When students have the power to choose their own paths of learning, it necessitates access to a large selection of resources on a wide variety of topics. If students have ready access to computers with internet connections, they have access to a larger number of resources than could be reasonably provided without using the internet (Smaldino, Russell, Heinich, & Molenda, 2005). Jonassen (2006) notes that requiring students to gather and organize their own information instead of the more traditional method of the teacher providing all the information helps shift learning towards the students’ self-construction of knowledge.

The use of computers with internet connections also creates opportunities for students to be connected to members of the community or experts within their area of research to use as resources and further their learning (Couros, 2006). The ubiquity of free internet tools (i.e. Skype, Twitter, blogs, wikis) that provide methods to connect students to people outside of their classrooms and schools makes the ability to connect students to experts outside the classroom feasible even for individuals with limited technological expertise. Couros (2009a) points out the use of free online tools can This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 17

provide new and more powerful methods of learning for students, extend learning for students beyond the school day, and encourages greater community and parental participation by creating online spaces available for public viewing.

Communication. Liu and Szabo (2009) state that one of the primary benefits of using technology in the classroom is to facilitate communication. The use of technology as a communication tool creates environments which more easily support student-centered learning (Jonassen, 2006; Smaldino, et al., 2005), and changes the way students learn and interact with information (Lopes & de Macedo, 2009; Thompson, Schmidt, & Davis, 2003).

Student use of technology creates situations where students become creators of resources and information instead of simply consumers. The shift to production is more engaging and requires students to think more deeply about their content in order to produce an artifact that succinctly and effectively communicates the information to others (Herrington & Kervin, 2007). The increased used of technology also makes it easier to share student work (Jonassen, 2006). Publishing student work has been shown to increase student engagement and quality of work (Wiley, 2002) and, when published digitally, it is also easier for students to view and assess the work of their peers and have individuals outside of the classroom environment provide feedback on student work. Hatch & Grossman (2009) note that publishing artifacts and reflections created by teachers online allows for observers to see the development of thinking over time. This meshes with Herrington & Kervin’s (2007) ideas that the ability for students to see changes in their learning over time and share their learning with teachers and parents creates an ideal environment for self-assessment and authentic assessment.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 18

Structure and scaffolding. The open and student-centered format of SDL in the classroom can cause cognitive overload in students who are accustomed to traditional classroom instruction. This is especially true for students who lack well-developed skills in self-regulating their learning. When students experience cognitive overload they are unable to effectively select topics for inquiry or identify methods and tools to support their inquiry (van Merrienboer & Sluijsmans, 2009). As such, it is important the the teacher provides adequate support and scaffolding for students in order to lower their cognitive load and improve self-regulation skills among students (Dignath & Buttner, 2008; Dynan, et al., 2008). Scaffolding can take many forms within the SDL format. The literature suggests that cognitive mentoring and modeling, structured learning environments, and providing a well-rounded content-knowledge base are effective methods to build student skills in the self-regulation of learning.

Cognitive mentoring and modeling by the instructor provides students with tangible examples of the cognitive skills necessary for effective self-regulation of learning. The instructor models asking questions which students should be asking themselves as they self-assess their own work or learning (Hmelo-Silver, et al., 2007, Shepard, 2000). As students are exposed to these skills and challenged to externalize and analyze their thought processes, students build the skills to effectively regulate their learning without the support of the instructor (van Merrienboer & Sluijsmans, 2009). Guiding students through the application of these metacognitive strategies do not improve learning itself, but they have been shown to improve students’ ability to self-regulate their learning more effectively (Dignath & Buttner, 2008).

A structured learning environment has been shown to be essential for students who This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 19

do not have well-developed self-directed learning skills. Dynan, et al. (2008) note that even many college level students lack the adequate self-directed learning skills to effectively engage in an unstructured learning environment, thus there is a definite need for structured learning environments within the SDL framework for students at the secondary level. In a properly scaffolded environment, teachers play a critical role in pushing students towards higher standards and helping students gain the cognitive and organizational skills necessary to effectively engage in the SDL process (Dignath & Buttner, 2008; Hmelo-Silver, et al., 2007). van Merrienboer & Sluijsmans (2009) note that an effective method to begin the SDL process with students is to provide them examples of fully completed work and detailing how the example met the standards as well as pointing out places where the example could be improved. This method helps students better understand the expectations and methods they will need to successfully self-regulate learning. As students become more familiar with the environment, the instructor can pull back the support until eventually students are able to effectively function without any support or guidance (Hmelo-Silver, et al., 2007).

Glaser (1992) notes that domain-specific knowledge is necessary for effective problem-solving. If students are presented problems in content areas where they do not have an adequate knowledge base they struggle in their ability to identify acceptable methods of solving the problems (Segers, et al., 1999). The SDL format involves presenting problems before students have a well-developed knowledge base (Nuy, 1991).

While this has been shown as an effective method of increasing student engagement in the content area (Yip & Ghafarian, 2000; Zimmerman & Bandura, 1994), it often causes This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 20

students to struggle when they are required to apply their knowledge in flexible ways to new problems (Segers, et al., 1999).

Student collaboration. SDL environments include frequent opportunities for students to work together in groups as a way of constructing knowledge and collaborating to meet learning goals (Loyens, et al., 2008). Brown & Adler (2008) note that students who study and work in groups learn more effectively than students who work individually.

However, simply placing students into groups does not by itself create a more effective and engaging learning environment. In order for groups to be highly effective the instructor needs to guide students in how to work effectively in groups (Jones, 2002).

Meyers & Jones (1993) list five criteria for groups to work together effectively: (a) a sense of interdependence between group members, (b) accountability to the team and instructor, (c) frequent face-to-face interaction, (d) explicit development of social skills needed for collaboration, and (e) critical analyses of group processes. In order to achieve these goals, Jones (2002) suggest that group processes and how individuals add to the group needs to be assessed independent of the output of the group and that students need to engage in critical reflection on how they worked and contributed with their groups.

Through this process, students come to work in groups more effectively and thus produce higher quality learning and learning products.

Assessments. The format for assessments in SDL environments needs to match the goals of SDL (Herrington & Kervin, 2007; Shepard, 2000). This means that using traditional teacher-written or standardized assessments do not accurately or effectively measure student progress and learning, and may actually inhibit students’ critical thinking skills and ability to effectively self-regulate their learning (Pederson, et al., 2007; Shepard, This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 21

2000; Yip & Ghafarian, 2000). Assessment in SDL environments should be integrated as part of the students work using a variety of formats, including observations of student work, reflective journals, interviews, and peer assessments (Shepard, 2000). While it isn’t necessary to use each of these formats all the time, assessment should not be done solely using formal tests. Tests cause students to focus on memorization and often fail to effectively measure understanding and the ability for students to apply their knowledge in other situations (Darling-Hammond, 1990; Segers, et al., 1999).

Assessments should help students improve their critical thinking skills and ability to self-regulate their learning. In doing this, Shepard (2000) describes assessments that are designed to be sources of help and insight instead of a method for rewarding or punishing students. As such, effective assessments should be geared towards helping students better understand where they need extra help, provide opportunities for targeted instruction, and show progress towards the pre-defined goals of the course. Segers, et al. (1999) add that the instructor shouldn’t be the sole assessor. Working in small groups with peers can be a means for students to receive constructive feedback on their progress.

Student self-assessment should also play a large role in SDL environments (Segers, et al., 2007). Having students reflect upon their work processes and assess their own products improves their problem-solving abilities and helps improve the quality of student work (Pedersen, et al., 2007). In addition, Shepard (2000) notes that self-assessment builds student-ownership of the assessment process and makes it possible to hold students to higher standards. As students begin to self-assess, it is important that the instructor provides feedback to students on the quality of their self-assessments. As students gain a better understanding of what the expectations for self-assessment are, the This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 22

instructor can gradually reduce their level of assessment. When implemented effectively student assessment can be based almost entirely upon student self-assessments with minimal additional assessment provided by the instructor (van Merrienboer & Sluijismans, 2009).

Proposed Project Design

Students will work within the self-directed learning model as described by van Merrienboer & Sluijsmans (2009). This model uses the cyclic processes of monitoring, evaluating, and planning. Initially, students receive higher levels of guidance and support which fades until students can perform the learning tasks independently. When students begin, they work with the teacher in order to develop learning goals, select strategies to meet the goals, and attempt to identify possible obstacles to the successful attainment of the goals. For students to accurately identify their learning needs, they will need to be spend time reflecting on their progress towards their learning goals. During the reflection students will consider what tasks and skills have helped them make progress towards their goals and identify areas of weakness that might need to be focused upon in order to successfully met their learning goals. During evaluation, students work with the teacher in order to assess how effectively they met their learning goals and evaluate their process towards the completion of the learning goals. Students then cycle back to the planning process to identify new learning tasks and goals. With each iteration of the cycle, the structure and support provided the teacher should be reduced until students can effectively plan, monitor, and evaluate their progress independently. The purpose of this process is to help reduce the student’s cognitive load while working towards independent learning goals.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 23

Scaffolding and Support

van Merrienboer & Sluijsmans (2009) note that while rich learning tasks that occur when students are involved in SDL are highly effective, they often impose a cognitive load that can be excessive for novice learners and can actually be detrimental to the students’ learning. Providing appropriate scaffolding and support to help novice learning gain expertise and independence is a critical component to effectively implement SDL in the classroom.

Prior to the full implementation of the SDL unit, students will be exposed to shorter duration projects and lessons that require many of the cognitive skills necessary for students to successfully self-regulate their own learning in environments that have higher levels of support. These projects and lessons provide students with more limited choices of topics and methods for demonstrating knowledge than during the full SDL unit. This gives the students a time to build self-regulation skills and gives the teacher insight into the pre-existing skill levels of the students. Throughout these pre-SDL experiences students are asked to self-assess their progress towards pre-determined learning goals, self- and peer-assess the artifacts of their learning, work collaboratively with other students, and identify and assess resources that help them successfully meet the learning goals.

When the SDL unit is first implemented, the teacher will provide examples of exemplary student work. This serves to give students a better understanding of the expectations and reduce the overall cognitive load. The need to provide full exemplars decreases as students gain experience and skill working within a SDL environment (van Merrienboer & Sluijsmans, 2009). Eventually, providing exemplars for students will not This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 24

be necessary, as students will develop a better understanding of what is expected and will also be better able to support each other if there is a need for additional support.

Students in the Integrated Science classes are freshmen in high school, and it can be expected that they will have very little or no experience with a SDL environment at school. As a result, it is expected that incoming students will not have the self-regulation skills necessary to successfully work in an unstructured environment (see Dynan, Cate, & Rhee, 2008). The teacher will hold regular meetings with individual students at least twice a week. In these meetings students will explain their progress, discuss what learning goals are appropriate, review their self-assessments, and select new learning tasks. The teacher will give feedback on the students’ progress as well as provide support and suggestions for developing and deepening learning. In addition, students will write blog posts two to three times a week sharing and reflecting on their progress and comment on each other’s posts. This serves as a public exhibition of their progress and a method of two-way communication and support with their teacher and classmates about successes and struggles they are experiencing. The use of online technology tools will provide additional support for students. Social bookmarking tools (i.e.

http://delicious.com) will allow students to save and share relevant online resources with each other. Google Docs (http://docs.google.com) provides an environment for students to collaborate simultaneously on a single document or presentation. A dedicated social networking site (as provided by services such as http://www.ning.com) allows for students to quickly and easily communicate with each other and share information. RSS

readers (i.e. http://reader.google.com or http://www.netvibes.com) provide a means for students to manage the information flow coming from their classmates and teacher. Other This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 25

networking tools might be facilitated by the teacher to connect students to experts in the field (i.e. http://twitter.com or Skype). The goal of using these tools is to make sharing, managing, and connecting to resources easier and faster than alternative methods.

Segers, et al. (1999) note that successful problem solving is associated with domain-specific knowledge. Once students have selected their learning tasks and goals, one of the first activities must be helping students to determine what knowledge is needed to successfully analyze the issue they have selected. As time goes on, it will be expected that students will become more self-sufficient and able to identify what things they need to learn independently. Students are expected to regularly reflect upon what things they know and where they need to increase their knowledge base to gain a full understanding of the concepts. Through the regular meetings with the teacher, students will be asked to share their understandings and analyze weaknesses in their knowledge.

The major format for students to share their learning will occur on team blogs (see Appendix A). This format allows for students to share what they’ve learned globally while inviting discussion and further learning through discussion in the blog comments.

Students will be grouped into teams of four, with each team using a separate blog. Each week one member of the team will be given the role of “editor.” The editor is required to review all other posts written by members of their team; providing feedback in how to improve the post. Specifically, the editor checks for grammatical and spelling mistakes, clarity of ideas and writing, and the inclusion of citations. Only the editor will be able to publish a blog post so it appears on the team’s blog (see Figure 1 for details on the editing process).

Assessments

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 26

Shepard (2000) notes that traditional assessment practices often cause students to focus on the memorization of facts instead helping to support and further student learning. The goal of assessment in this project will be to provide students with constructive feedback that will help guide and support their learning. To do this, assessment will be done through multiple methods including formative, summative, and self & peer assessments. Formative assessments will include the following: 1. Twice weekly one-on-one meetings with the teacher to discuss student progress and select new learning tasks.

2. Regular student blog posts, comments, and online discussions 3. Observations of student work during class Self & peer assessments will be done by students as a means for students to reflect upon their work during the project and also at the conclusion of the project. The self-assessments will also be used during the one-on-one student-teacher meetings to discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the students knowledge and learning task selection.

Formal self-assessments will happen at minimum once per week through a single “check in” question. Other informal self-assessments will happen regularly through conversation with students during work time.

Summative assessments will focus on the students’ learning process more than any final product. Twice during the project students will be asked to give a five-minute

“What I’ve Learned So Far” presentation to their classmates. At the conclusion of project, students will be asked to give an overview to display their learning. The goal of this final overview will be to share their learning journey from the initial stages to their final understandings. The final overview might be done in a variety of formats- a This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 27

traditional presentation, video summary, wiki article, etc. The only stipulation is that the final overview must be in a format that can be posted online. Finally, a summative assessment will be performed by the teacher and “experts in the field” that have volunteered to do so. “Experts in the field” might be other educators or professionals working in the scientific fields that will be vetted by the teacher and informed of the project goals before beginning the summative assessments. The end of project summative assessments performed by the teacher and experts in the field will look at the following aspects of the students’ projects (adapted from Yip & Ghafarian, 2000): (a) completion of minimum project expectations; (b) seriousness and accuracy of self- and peer-assessments; (c) quality and professionalism of writing; (d) ability to effectively collaborate with classmates, the teacher, and experts in the field; (e) evidence of understanding and critical thinking related to content knowledge; (f) ability to select appropriate learning tasks; and (g) effective use of technological resources to communicate and connect with resources

Safety Considerations

The expectation that students will publish their work online and otherwise use online tools to communicate necessitates interaction between students, their work, and individuals outside of the classroom and local school community. This interaction can cause concern among parents and school leaders due to anecdotal and often sensationalized examples of inappropriate contact through social-based Internet-based tools (Couros, 2008). Ito, et al. (2008) notes there is great potential in using these tools to enhance and extend student learning, and Couros (2008) notes that most high school age students are already using these tools outside of the classroom environment. While there This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 28

is risk of inappropriate contact between students and individuals outside the classroom, the potential risk is very small compared to the enhancement of student learning through these tools.

As a result, to minimize the potential risk as well as ease the concerns of students, parents, administrators, and other stakeholders, the following guidelines will be used throughout this course:

1. Students may not use their last names when posting content online for this class photographs and videos that depict students may not be labeled with student names

2. All student work must be approved by the instructor before being published online.

3. All comments on class blogs or sites will be moderated by the instructor before posting to the site

4. Parents will be required to sign a letter explaining the guidelines and unit expectations prior the start of the unit

Timeline

Week 1 (Jan. 25 - 29):

Introduce class concept. Introduce and get students signed up for the class wiki and Ning.

Go over expectations for posting, citation of sources, etc.

Course content:

Atoms, molecules, periodic table basics.

Week 2 (Feb. 1 - 5)

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 29

Go over expectations for self-directed learning.

Introduce and get students signed up for Google Docs & Delicious.

Course content:

Periodic table and families of elements.

Collaborative project on families of elements.

Weeks 3-4 (Feb. 8 - 19)

Get students started with their blogs, go over blogging expectations Course content:

Chemical bonds, organic molecules & polymers Open ended project: Big question on plastics Week 5 (Feb. 22 - 26)

Course content:

Intro to carbon cycle & global warming Week 6 (Mar. 1 - 5)

Introduce SDL global warming unit.

Pick initial learning tasks. Go over expectations.

Regular student-teacher meetings, weekly check-in survey.

Week 7 (Mar. 8 - 12)

Work on SDL global warming learning tasks.

Regular student-teacher meetings, weekly check-in survey.

Quick student “What I’ve Learned So Far” presentations.

Week 8 (Mar. 15 - 19)

Work on SDL global warming learning tasks.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 30

Regular student-teacher meetings, weekly check-in survey.

Quick student “What I’ve Learned So Far” presentations.

Week 9 (Mar. 22 - 26)

Final week working on SDL global warming learning tasks.

Regular student-teacher meetings, weekly check-in survey.

Week 10 (Mar. 29 - Apr. 2)

End of project presentations.

Final assessment of overall projects.

Conclusions

Student work in this learning environment At the beginning of the project, many students expressed concerns about the editing process, finding topics to investigate, and the minimum amount of work required for the project. Students seemed to be experiencing cognitive overload due to experiencing a project format with which they were unfamiliar and the amount of freedom they had in picking topics and setting their work schedule. As such, it was necessary to spend time up front going over various aspects of the project that were causing most the cognitive overload. Specifically, time was spent in a large group format describing the writing, editing, and blog posting process, how to write for blog posts, brainstorming potential topics, and what the expectations for quality above the minimum requirements included (see Appendix B).

Once students had a better grasp of these technical details, though some still expressed uncertainty, they seemed to have an easier time finding topics and working This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 31

independently on the project. Students who were initially uncertain were able to observe and talk to students who had successfully selected a topic and started their project and then model their work habits and techniques on those of their classmates. After a few days nearly all students expressed that they were comfortable with what was expected of them and how to successfully complete the project even if they hadn’t settled on a topic to research yet.

Students frequently noted that they enjoyed the freedom the format for the project allowed them (for example, some responses on the Week two survey in Appendix C). In class, students were expected to be working on the project, but it was up to them whether they were researching, reading and commenting on their classmates’ work, or doing other related tasks. Students also noted they enjoyed being able to pick any topic that interested them as long as it related to climate change. This led students to investigate topics that would most likely not have been selected in a traditional teacher-led project.

Student learning

This project appeared to successfully create a powerful learning experience for students. Typically, students began the project by selecting a fairly general topic to start their investigations and research. As time went on, they delved into more detail or found related topics that interested them. For example, one student began by looking into what it meant to be “carbon neutral.” As she looked into this topic, she followed her interests to related topics such as buying carbon credits, greenwashing, and up- and downcycling (see http://wearescientists2.edublogs.org/tag/bryn/ for the student’s posts). Another student was interested in researching the effect of climate change on diseases. This This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 32

student researched many diseases that might become more common as a result of a warming climate (see http://wearescientists4.edublogs.org/tag/olivia/).

Students were required to read and comment on each other’s posts, which exposed students to many new ideas and provided opportunities for learning to occur through the dialogue that occurred in the comments. Many comments were left by people from around the country and world, which provided students with the opinions and ideas of people beyond the school community. One effect of this ability to comment on students’ posts is that it pushed students to increase the quality of their posts. For example, after one student published a low quality post, several comments were left questioning the ideas in the post and made suggestions about improving the ideas presented (see http://wearescientists1.edublogs.org/2010/05/12/stupid-seals/). At the end of the project, students were asked to give a presentation in which they selected a thesis to prove based on their learning throughout the project (see Appendix D). Students consistently showed an ability to synthesize the various topics they researched and display a complex understanding of their topics (see http://benwildeboer.com/files/ProjectClimate/spr2010jocelyn.avi and http://benwildeboer.com/files/ProjectClimate/spr2010amar.avi). Some students explicitly stated that they felt the project challenged their learning in ways that they haven’t experienced in traditional classroom environments (see http://wearescientists5.edublogs.org/2010/05/28/reflection/).

Thoughts on the project format

The editing process for blog posts had many benefits beyond the intended effect of improving the quality of students’ published work. For one, it increased the amount of This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 33

communication and collaboration between students. Students had to talk to each other about their posts and thus their content material as part of the editing process. Students became increasingly comfortable with providing constructive feedback on each other’s work as the project went on. Editors also had to become more familiar with the content matter of their team members through the editing process, thus providing a secondary avenue for learning. In addition, it forced students to determine the characteristics of a quality post. There were frequent conversations between editors and team members discussing what could be done to improve the quality of posts. For example, an editor suggested the author add a picture to help illustrate their ideas and draw attention to the post. The author then questioned whether a good post needed a picture. Then a discussion about whether pictures are required for a quality post, and how not all pictures would improve the post, and a discussion of what types of pictures would either improve or hurt the post’s quality. Several other discussions along these lines were overheard throughout the implementation of the project.

A few students did have trouble meeting the minimum requirements for the project (see Appendix B), mostly due to lacking skills necessary to self-regulate their learning. While there were several support structures built into the project (1:1 meetings, peer-editing, etc.), these students often would get sidetracked while researching or remain undecided about a topic to research for long periods of time. While the teacher would offer extra support when it was noticed students were faltering, in a few instances students seemed to need more structure or less independence while working on the project.

Suggestions for future implementation

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 34

Though the implementation of a self-directed learning environment into a ninth grade science class was quite successful, there are several changes that might be suggested for future implementations. First, there should be a greater emphasis on self-evaluation and making it a larger part of student assessment. While students were asked to assess their progress and learning through surveys (see Appendix C) or self-reflections, to be an integral part of student assessment it needs to happen more regularly and with greater support.

A greater focus on parental involvement would also be a fairly easy change that could add value to student learning. Parents were sent a letter informing them that students would be writing and publishing their learning online, there was not much effort to encourage parents to leave comments on students’ posts. Reminders sent to parents via email or letters sent home with students during the project might increase parental participation and improve the learning experience for students.

Students enjoyed getting information and opinions from experts outside of the school community. Examples of the type of contact students had with experts included an in-class presentation by a local marine biology doctoral student doing research on the potential effects of warming in the Gulf of Maine on native fish populations and a volcanologist at Mount Baker Volcanic Research Center who answered students’

questions about the effects of volcanoes on climate change. However, many students struggled to make contact with experts in their areas of interest. Many students sent messages to experts but didn’t hear back from them, and it often took students a long time to find someone they attempted to contact. It would be useful for the teacher to seek out a several experts in climate change related topics before the project that agree to This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 35

provide knowledge and insight to students. While students could still contact other experts, it would reduce the amount of time and frustration students experienced while attempting to locate and contact an expert in their area of interest.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 36

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 43

Appendix A

List of student team blog URLs

• Team 1: http://wearescientists1.edublogs.org

• Team 2: http://wearescientists2.edublogs.org

• Team 3: http://wearescientists3.edublogs.org

• Team 4: http://wearescientists4.edublogs.org

• Team 5: http://wearescientists5.edublogs.org This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 44

Appendix B

Checklist of minimum requirements for students This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 45

Appendix C

Student survey and results from the second week of project implementation This survey can be found online at:

http://spreadsheets.google.com/viewform?hl=en&formkey=dDV2aC16eE9rdk0xa3hwZF

ZHdU55M3c6MA#gid=0

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 46

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 47

Results

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SDL in a ninth grade science classroom 48

Appendix D

General expectations for student presentations This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.

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